Famous European Crowns

The episode examines 10 famous European crowns as physical historical objects rather than simply symbols of monarchy. The selection covers the major regions of Europe, includes eight surviving crowns and two lost crowns, and proceeds from the most recently created to the oldest.

The United Kingdom has two principal royal crowns with different functions. St Edward’s Crown is used for coronations and appears in British heraldry, including the United Kingdom’s coat of arms and several Canadian coats of arms. The Imperial State Crown is used for other important royal occasions, including the State Opening of Parliament.

The Imperial State Crown is considerably lighter than St Edward’s Crown. It weighs approximately 2.3 pounds, compared with roughly 5 pounds for St Edward’s Crown, making it more practical for extended ceremonial wear.

The Imperial State Crown contains substantially more gemstones than the coronation crown. It features 2,868 diamonds, 17 sapphires, 11 emeralds, and hundreds of pearls. St Edward’s Crown contains 444 gemstones.

The Imperial State Crown has been estimated to be worth approximately US$2 billion. The presenter emphasizes that no precise valuation exists and identifies its largest diamond as a major contributor to the estimated value.

Cullinan II is the 317-carat diamond mounted prominently at the front of the Imperial State Crown. It is sometimes confused with the Koh-i-Noor diamond, but they are separate stones. The Koh-i-Noor appears in the crown previously worn by Queen Elizabeth II’s mother.

The Cullinan diamond was discovered in South Africa in 1905. Described as the largest gem-quality diamond ever discovered, it was subsequently divided into nine principal stones, which were incorporated into British royal jewellery.

Cullinan I, the largest of those nine stones, is mounted in the British monarch’s sceptre. Cullinan II, the second-largest, occupies the front of the Imperial State Crown.

Cullinan III and Cullinan IV were incorporated into a royal brooch. The presenter explains that the other principal stones from the original Cullinan diamond were also fashioned into jewellery used by the British royal family.

The Imperial State Crown dates to 1838, during Queen Victoria’s reign, rather than to the origins of the British monarchy. British royal crowns have repeatedly been constructed, modified, and replaced, meaning the age of the present crown differs from the age of the institution.

Several gemstones mounted on the Imperial State Crown are considerably older than the crown itself. These surviving historical stones connect the nineteenth-century object with earlier English and British monarchs.

St Edward’s Sapphire, positioned near the top of the Imperial State Crown, is traditionally associated with Edward the Confessor. According to the account, the stone was once mounted in the coronation ring of the Anglo-Saxon king, who ruled before the Norman conquest of England.

The Black Prince’s Ruby sits directly above Cullinan II. Despite its traditional name, the stone is actually a red spinel rather than a ruby.

The Black Prince’s Ruby is described as the largest uncut spinel in the world. Its history is traced to 1367, and its name refers to Edward the Black Prince, son of King Edward III of England.

The Black Prince’s Ruby contains a small hole filled with another stone. The presenter recounts an explanation that a hole was once drilled into the spinel to accommodate a feather, although he presents this as a story he has heard rather than an established fact.

The Stuart Sapphire originally occupied the position now held by Cullinan II. The sapphire was mounted at the front of the Imperial State Crown before being relocated to its rear.

The Stuart Sapphire belonged to King James II and subsequently passed into the possession of Stuart claimants to the British throne. The stone remained associated with the displaced royal dynasty following the succession of the House of Hanover.

King George III purchased the Stuart Sapphire in 1807, returning it to the British Crown Jewels. The presenter interprets its return as symbolically significant because it reconnected a former royal possession with the reigning monarchy.

The Imperial State Crown's present arrangement developed after its original construction. Because the Cullinan diamond was discovered in 1905, it could only have replaced the Stuart Sapphire at a later date, demonstrating that the crown continued to evolve after 1838.

Spain’s Corona Tumular was originally created as a funeral crown. It was made for the funeral of Elisabeth Farnese, wife of Philip V, the first Bourbon king of Spain.

The term Corona Tumular means burial crown. The presenter also explains that corona is the Latin word for crown, the same word from which coronaviruses derive their name because of their crown-like projections.

Spain’s royal crown is unusually restrained compared with the other European crowns discussed. It features heraldic decorations around its base but contains no gemstones.

The Spanish crown is made of gold-plated silver rather than solid gold. Its relatively simple construction contrasts with the elaborate diamond-covered crowns traditionally associated with other European monarchies.

Spanish monarchs have traditionally been proclaimed rather than physically crowned. This explains why the Spanish crown functions primarily as a symbol of royal authority instead of an object placed on the sovereign’s head.

King Felipe VI did not wear the Corona Tumular when he became king. The crown was displayed near him during the ceremony but was never placed on his head.

Spain demonstrates that European monarchies do not share a single coronation tradition. The presentation distinguishes between monarchies that physically crown their sovereigns and those that recognize accession through proclamation.

The Imperial Crown of Russia was created in 1762 for the coronation of Catherine the Great. Unlike the relatively modest Spanish crown, it was designed as an elaborate symbol of imperial magnificence.

The original Russian Imperial Crown survives despite the disappearance of the Russian Empire. It is preserved at the Kremlin Armoury Museum in Moscow. The image presented in the episode depicts a replica rather than the original.

Earlier Russian rulers, including Peter the Great, used Monomakh’s Cap. This substantially older crown may have originated from Mongol traditions, although the presenter treats that origin as uncertain.

Monomakh’s Cap also survives in Moscow’s Kremlin Armoury. Its preservation alongside the later Imperial Crown illustrates the changes in Russian coronation regalia over several centuries.

The Russian Imperial Crown contains 4,936 diamonds. Its elaborate decoration makes it substantially more jewel-covered than the other surviving European crowns discussed up to that point.

A large red spinel crowns the Russian Imperial Crown. The presenter describes it as the second-largest spinel in the world, after the Black Prince’s Ruby.

The Russian Imperial Crown has a distinctive mitre-shaped construction. Its form resembles the ceremonial headwear of bishops, with two raised sections joined at the base.

The mitre shape differs from the more familiar European crown design. Conventional European crowns generally feature a circular band supporting several curved half-arches that meet above the head.

The former Austrian Empire also possessed a mitre-shaped imperial crown. Russia therefore did not uniquely adopt this design, which appeared in more than one European imperial tradition.

The Crown of Eric XIV was made in 1561 for King Eric XIV of Sweden. It remains Sweden’s official royal crown.

Sweden no longer places its official crown on the reigning monarch’s head. Like Spain, modern Sweden preserves the crown as royal regalia without continuing the former practice of physically crowning the sovereign.

Sweden’s Crown of Eric XIV is the oldest of the principal Scandinavian royal crowns discussed. Denmark's two major crowns date to 1596 and 1671, while Norway's crown dates to 1818.

Many European crowns feature a globus cruciger, consisting of an orb topped by a cross. This symbolic combination appears on the Swedish crown and numerous other royal crowns.

The cross represents Jesus Christ, while the orb represents the world. Together, they express the Christian understanding of Christ’s authority over the world and the religious legitimacy associated with royal rule.

European monarchs frequently appear holding an orb and cross in medieval and early modern paintings. The same symbolism could be incorporated directly into crowns or carried separately as part of the royal regalia.

The Crown of Saint Wenceslas was created in 1346 for the Kingdom of Bohemia. Bohemia was a historical kingdom in the territory of the present-day Czech Republic.

The Bohemian crown is named after Saint Wenceslas, a tenth-century Czech duke. He is also the historical figure associated with the Christmas carol Good King Wenceslas.

The Crown of Saint Wenceslas preserves an older style of gemstone setting. Its stones appear comparatively large and irregular because they were polished without being cut into the numerous reflective facets familiar in modern jewellery.

Modern faceting techniques are designed to increase a gemstone’s brilliance. By cutting surfaces at carefully chosen angles, jewellers increase the reflection of light within stones, producing a sparkling effect that is largely absent from the older Bohemian crown.

The Crown of Saint Wenceslas contains 45 red gemstones, but only one is a genuine ruby. The remaining 44 red stones are spinels, demonstrating that gemstones with similar appearances can belong to different mineral categories.

The Bohemian crown also contains 30 emeralds and 19 sapphires. The presenter identifies the emeralds by their green colouring and explains that sapphires are usually blue.

A legend claims that anyone who wears the Crown of Saint Wenceslas without being the rightful monarch will die within a year. The presenter introduces this as a traditional story rather than a verified supernatural property.

The crown’s curse is associated with a story about a Nazi official governing Bohemia during the Second World War. According to the legend, the official secretly placed the crown on his head and was assassinated the following year. The account is presented as an alleged fulfillment of the curse.

The Crown of Saint Wenceslas is secured inside Saint Vitus Cathedral in Prague. It is kept in a restricted vault rather than being continuously exhibited to the public.

Access to the Bohemian crown requires seven separate keys held by seven different people. This arrangement distributes control over the crown and prevents any single keyholder from independently opening its secure storage.

The Crown of Bolesław the Brave served as an important coronation crown of the Kingdom of Poland. Although named after an earlier Polish king, the physical crown discussed dates to approximately the same medieval period as the Crown of Saint Wenceslas.

The original Polish crown was lost following the partition of Poland in 1795. According to the presenter, Prussian authorities seized it and melted it down, destroying an important piece of Polish royal history.

The Crown of Bolesław the Brave had been among Europe’s oldest and most significant surviving physical crowns before its destruction. Its historical importance explains its inclusion despite the loss of the original object.

Paintings of Polish monarchs preserve images of the lost crown. The illustrations allow modern viewers to reconstruct its appearance even though the original regalia no longer survives.

The fleur-de-lis is one of the most widespread decorative symbols in European royal crowns. Its stylized floral form appears in the crowns and heraldry of numerous monarchies.

The fleur-de-lis is traditionally associated with the Franks and later with France. The presenter connects its origins to the Frankish rulers who established a major Western European empire following the collapse of Roman authority in the West.

The fleur-de-lis became a general symbol of royalty beyond France. Its widespread adoption means that its appearance on a crown does not necessarily indicate French rule or direct French dynastic influence.

Tonga provides an example of the fleur-de-lis spreading beyond Europe. The independent Pacific island kingdom incorporated the symbol into its royal crown despite never having been colonized by France.

The Holy Crown of Hungary is distinguished by its Byzantine appearance. The presenter considers it likely to have been made in Constantinople and identifies its construction and decoration with Byzantine imperial traditions.

The Hungarian crown features hanging ornaments called pendilia. These suspended decorations commonly appeared on Byzantine imperial crowns and are visible in historical depictions of Byzantine emperors.

The Holy Crown of Hungary contains an image of Byzantine Emperor Michael VII. His portrait appears on the rear of the crown, directly connecting the object with the Byzantine imperial court.

The crown also depicts King Géza I of Hungary. His image appears to the right of Michael VII, establishing a visual relationship between the Byzantine emperor and the Hungarian ruler.

The presenter dates the crown’s original construction and presentation to approximately 1075. He explains that Michael VII directed its creation and subsequently presented it to Géza I, making the crown a material expression of relations between Byzantium and Hungary.

The original Hungarian crown consisted of a lower circular band known as the Greek Crown. This section preserves the Byzantine elements associated with the crown’s earliest history.

The upper arches, known as the Latin Crown, were added later during the reign of Béla III of Hungary. The crown therefore combines elements from different periods rather than being a single unchanged object from its original construction.

The Hungarian crown contains 19 enamel images. In addition to Michael VII and Géza I, the decorations include representations of Jesus Christ and several important Christian saints.

Enamel decoration distinguishes the Hungarian crown from crowns dominated by gemstones. Its religious and royal portraits make the crown an especially important object for understanding medieval Christian imagery and Byzantine-Hungarian connections.

The cross at the top of the Hungarian crown is visibly bent. Its crooked position has become one of the crown’s most recognizable characteristics.

One traditional explanation attributes the bent cross to damage caused by closing the crown inside a heavy iron box. The presenter identifies this as one story rather than providing a definitive account of how the damage occurred.

The Holy Crown of Hungary is permanently displayed in the Hungarian Parliament Building. Unlike the Bohemian crown, whose location and access are tightly restricted, Hungary’s principal royal crown can be viewed in a major national institution.

The Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire represented one of medieval Europe’s most prestigious imperial offices. For centuries, it was associated with the authority of emperors whose position connected German kingship with Roman imperial and Christian traditions.

The presenter traces the Imperial Crown to the period of Otto the Great, who was crowned emperor in 962. Otto is described as the first true Holy Roman Emperor, although the presenter acknowledges uncertainty about the crown’s exact origins.

The original Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire still survives despite the disappearance of the empire. The presenter places it in Vienna, within the complex associated with the Austrian president’s residence.

The Holy Roman imperial title was historically connected to papal coronation. The presenter explains that German kings could be crowned by the pope and thereby recognized as emperors.

Papal coronation remained part of the imperial tradition from Otto the Great through Charles V. After Charles V, the pope no longer personally crowned successive emperors.

The later imperial succession relied on election rather than a separate papal coronation ceremony. According to the presenter, the imperial title became effective when a new German king was elected, reflecting an important change in how imperial authority was formally recognized.

The Imperial Crown has an unusual octagonal shape rather than the circular form of most European crowns. It consists of eight flat plates joined by hinges.

Four of the crown’s eight plates contain enamelled religious imagery. The figures depicted are King David, King Solomon, King Hezekiah, and Jesus Christ.

The inclusion of biblical kings places imperial authority within a Christian historical framework. David, Solomon, and Hezekiah provide examples of ancient kingship, while the image of Jesus connects the imperial office with Christianity.

A large cross is mounted at the front of the Imperial Crown. A single arch runs from the front to the back, making its structure visibly different from crowns with several intersecting arches.

The Imperial Crown is made from approximately 22-karat gold. Its unusually deep yellow, almost orange appearance reflects the high purity of the metal, compared with the 14-karat gold commonly used in modern Western jewellery.

The Imperial Crown contains 144 gemstones. These include sapphires, emeralds, and amethysts, many of which are notably large.

The Imperial Crown’s gemstones are not faceted in the modern manner. Like the Crown of Saint Wenceslas, it preserves older jewellery techniques in which stones were polished but retained comparatively natural shapes.

One of the Imperial Crown’s most historically celebrated gemstones has disappeared. Known as the Orphan, it once occupied a prominent position at the front of the crown.

A heart-shaped sapphire now occupies the former position of the Orphan. The replacement demonstrates that the crown’s gemstone arrangement has changed since its original construction.

The Orphan was historically admired for its unusual beauty and optical properties. The presenter suggests that it may have been an exceptionally large opal, although the stone’s identity remains uncertain.

Opals are known for distinctive internal colour effects that can make them appear to glow. This optical quality is presented as a possible explanation for the historical descriptions of the Orphan.

Neither the date nor the circumstances of the Orphan’s disappearance are established. The presenter explicitly distinguishes the stone’s documented absence from speculation about what it originally was and how it was lost.

The Crown of Charlemagne was an important coronation crown of the French monarchy. Despite its name, it was not the crown originally placed on Charlemagne’s head.

The Crown of Charlemagne was probably created for Charles the Bald, Charlemagne’s grandson, around 875. This makes it older than the Imperial Crown associated with Otto the Great.

The original Crown of Charlemagne consisted of four plates forming its lower band. Those plates are attributed to the ninth century, while additional decoration was introduced later.

The fleur-de-lis ornaments were added several centuries after the crown’s original construction. Like several other crowns discussed, the French crown evolved through modifications made long after its first use.

The Crown of Charlemagne was used to crown most French kings until the French Revolution. It became a central object in the ceremonial history of the French monarchy.

The French Revolution led to the disappearance of the Crown of Charlemagne and much of France’s earlier royal regalia. The presenter explains that crowns and other royal objects were stolen during the upheaval.

The missing French crowns were probably dismantled and melted down. Their destruction is presented as the likely explanation for why these historic objects never reappeared.

The only pre-Revolution French royal crown identified as surviving was made for Louis XV. Most of the earlier coronation crowns were lost, making this surviving example particularly significant.

Napoleon’s imperial crown survives because it belongs to a later period. Napoleon became Emperor of the French after the Revolution, so his regalia was created after the destruction of much of the older royal collection.

The Iron Crown of Lombardy is presented as the oldest surviving European crown. Its precise age is uncertain, but the presenter dates it to approximately 628 CE and allows that it may be even older.

The Iron Crown dates from the centuries following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Its proposed seventh-century origin places it close to the period when successor kingdoms were establishing control over former Roman territories.

The Lombards were a people who established control over substantial parts of Italy. The presenter describes them as a former barbarian tribe that became one of the major political powers in post-Roman Italy.

Charlemagne eventually defeated the Lombards and incorporated their kingdom into his expanding realm. His conquests connected the earlier Lombard kingdom with the later Carolingian political order.

Charlemagne became a Western emperor after imperial rule in the West had disappeared following Rome’s fall. The presenter identifies his imperial coronation as the revival of Western imperial authority.

Charlemagne also became King of Italy in addition to his Frankish and imperial titles. His Italian kingship connects him directly with the historical regalia of the Lombards.

The presenter identifies the Iron Crown of Lombardy as the true surviving Crown of Charlemagne. Unlike the later French crown bearing Charlemagne’s name, he argues that the Lombard crown was actually worn by Charlemagne.

The Iron Crown is presented as the only surviving crown that would have been placed on Charlemagne’s head. This claimed personal connection makes it especially important within the episode’s account of early medieval European monarchy.

The Iron Crown’s name derives from a Christian relic tradition. According to the legend, an inner metal band holding the crown together was fashioned from one of the nails used in the crucifixion of Jesus.

The supposed crucifixion nail was believed to be iron. This belief gave the crown its familiar name and contributed to its religious significance.

Scientific testing found that the inner band is silver rather than iron. The presenter explains that no part of the crown is actually made of iron, contradicting the literal material claim behind its traditional name.

The Iron Crown consists of six metal panels joined by hinges. Its construction is simpler and more compact than the arched crowns associated with later European monarchies.

The panels are decorated with gold, enamel designs, and gemstones. The ornamentation combines precious materials with the relatively simple structural design of early medieval royal regalia.

The Iron Crown contains 22 gemstones. These comprise seven blue sapphires, seven red garnets, four purple amethysts, and four green glass stones.

Four of the Iron Crown’s green ornaments are glass rather than natural gemstones. The mixture of precious stones and coloured glass distinguishes its decoration from later crowns dominated by diamonds and other costly gems.

The Iron Crown has no upper arches or crowning ornament. It consists only of a decorated circular band, illustrating a simpler form of royal headwear than the elaborate crowns created in later centuries.

The Iron Crown is unusually small compared with most royal crowns. The presenter gives a measurement of approximately 48 centimetres, describing it as the crown’s diameter while also saying it would not fit an average person’s head. Those two statements are inconsistent, leaving the precise measurement unclear.

The Iron Crown is preserved at Monza Cathedral in Monza, near Milan, Italy. Its survival allows visitors to examine a physical object associated with the Lombard kingdom and early medieval European kingship.

The crowns illustrate distinct regional approaches to expressing royal authority. Britain emphasizes elaborate gemstones and separate ceremonial crowns; Spain and modern Sweden preserve crowns without placing them on monarchs; Russia developed an imperial mitre form; Hungary reflects Byzantine influence; and the Holy Roman Empire incorporated biblical imagery into its regalia.

The age of a crown does not necessarily correspond to the age of the monarchy using it. The Imperial State Crown was produced in 1838 despite Britain's much older monarchy, while medieval crowns were frequently modified or reused by successive rulers.

Several crowns combine components from different historical periods. Britain’s crown incorporates medieval gemstones into a nineteenth-century structure; Hungary’s Greek Crown was joined to later Latin arches; and the French Crown of Charlemagne received fleur-de-lis decoration centuries after its original construction.

Royal crowns frequently preserve distinctions between historical names and physical materials. The Black Prince’s Ruby is a spinel, the Iron Crown contains no iron, and the French Crown of Charlemagne was not the crown originally used to crown Charlemagne.

The survival of European crowns has depended on political events as much as their original construction. The Polish crown was destroyed following partition, French royal regalia disappeared during the Revolution, and the Russian and Holy Roman imperial crowns survived the collapse of the empires they represented.

The crowns remain important national objects even where the monarchies that created them have disappeared. The Russian Imperial Crown survives in Moscow, the Bohemian crown remains protected in Prague, Hungary’s crown is displayed in its Parliament Building, and the Holy Roman imperial regalia survives in Vienna.

Christian religious symbolism appears repeatedly across the collection. Crosses, orbs, representations of Jesus, biblical rulers, saints, and alleged relics connected physical crowns to Christian ideas of legitimate political authority.

The collection documents major changes in European craftsmanship. Early crowns commonly used hinged metal plates, enamelwork, polished stones, and simple circular forms, while later crowns incorporated elaborate arches, densely arranged gemstones, and more sophisticated jewellery techniques.

The oldest surviving crowns are not necessarily the most elaborate or valuable. The Iron Crown’s importance rests largely on its antiquity and historical associations, while the much younger British and Russian imperial crowns are distinguished by their extraordinary gemstone collections.