Timeline of US History

The United States has 50 states, but its original 13 states occupied different boundaries from those seen today. Several original states claimed substantially more territory in 1783, when Britain formally recognized American independence. Later states were created from portions of those original claims.

The return of a former president as the 47th president marks only the second nonconsecutive presidency in American history. Matt Baker uses this development to introduce an updated timeline of American history, redesigned with fellow history educator Mr. Beat to show how the country's territory and political institutions evolved.

The original British colonies formed the territorial foundation of the United States. The timeline identifies the original 13 states in dark red and states subsequently formed from their territorial claims in lighter red. Both colors represent land formerly controlled or claimed by Britain.

The Louisiana Purchase created the first major expansion of American territory beyond its original eastern boundaries. Much of the central United States, particularly west of the Mississippi River, came from territory formerly claimed by France. The map uses dark blue to represent this French connection, although the purchase boundaries did not precisely match modern state borders.

Spain and Mexico controlled or claimed substantial portions of what became the southern and western United States. The timeline distinguishes territories inherited from Spanish colonial rule from those subsequently governed by independent Mexico, using yellow for Spain and gold for Mexico.

Oregon Country, Alaska, and Hawaii entered the United States through separate historical processes. Oregon Country became the source of three northwestern states, while Alaska and Hawaii eventually became the final two states. The timeline also distinguishes Dutch colonial territory and Indigenous American lands.

North America contained hundreds of distinct Indigenous societies before European colonization. The map identifies 36 groups but represents only a small fraction of the continent's original peoples. Their ancestral territories are approximate, especially in western regions where population movements complicated later geographical boundaries.

The Navajo, Sioux, Cherokee, and Iroquois are used to illustrate four different Indigenous experiences during American expansion. Their histories demonstrate military resistance, diplomatic alliances, forced relocation, and the loss of ancestral territory. The account emphasizes that many Indigenous nations survived colonization and continue to exist.

Cahokia demonstrates that substantial urban settlements existed in North America long before European arrival. The account identifies Cahokia, in present-day Illinois, as an Indigenous population center of approximately 20,000 people and associates its history with the period beginning around AD 600.

Pueblo Bonito in present-day New Mexico provides another example of sophisticated pre-European settlement. Its multistory buildings, dating to approximately AD 1000, demonstrate that Indigenous communities developed substantial permanent architecture centuries before European colonization.

Spain made the earliest European settlement attempt mentioned in the account within the present-day United States. San Miguel de Gualdape was established in 1526 but failed. Its precise location remains uncertain.

St. Augustine, Florida, became the first successful European settlement identified in the account. Spain established it in 1565, decades before England successfully established a permanent colony.

France's earliest settlement attempts within today's United States were unsuccessful. Charlesfort in present-day South Carolina and a settlement on St. Croix Island in present-day Maine both failed. France's first successful settlement discussed was at Quebec City, in present-day Canada, outside the territory covered by the American timeline.

England's Roanoke colony disappeared under circumstances that remain unresolved. Approximately 100 settlers arrived on Roanoke Island, North Carolina, in 1585. When an English ship returned five years later, the settlers had disappeared, and their fate remains uncertain.

Jamestown, Virginia, established in 1607, became England's first successful colonial foothold in the region. It provided the foundation for the expansion of English settlement along the Atlantic coast.

The Pilgrims established Plymouth Colony in 1620 after arriving aboard the Mayflower. Plymouth represented another successful English settlement and initially remained politically separate from the neighboring Massachusetts colony.

The Dutch established an important colonial presence in present-day New York. Their settlements included Fort Nassau in the Albany area and New Amsterdam, which eventually became New York City.

By 1630, several European powers already maintained separate settlements in North America. England controlled settlements in Virginia and New England, the Dutch occupied parts of present-day New York, and Spain maintained colonies in Florida and New Mexico.

England's northern and southern colonies originally developed as geographically separated groups. Virginia and New England were divided by Dutch-controlled New Netherland and, briefly, New Sweden in present-day Delaware. The Dutch subsequently conquered New Sweden.

Maryland was established partly to provide a settlement area for Catholics. Its development added another English colony south of the Dutch-controlled territory.

Connecticut emerged through the consolidation of several smaller English settlements. New Haven and Saybrook eventually merged with settlements along the Connecticut River, producing the colony that became Connecticut.

Rhode Island maintained its separate colonial identity rather than merging with neighboring colonies. It subsequently became the smallest American state by area.

Plymouth and Massachusetts remained separate for much of the seventeenth century before merging. New Hampshire also experienced a period of political union with Massachusetts before becoming separate again.

The Iroquois Confederacy consisted initially of five nations and later expanded to six. Its members called their confederacy the Haudenosaunee. They occupied an influential position in northeastern North America before and during European colonization.

The Beaver Wars connected Indigenous rivalries to European competition over the fur trade. The Haudenosaunee allied with the Dutch and later the British, while their traditional rivals, the Wyandot, allied with the French. The Haudenosaunee ultimately prevailed in the struggle described.

England's conquest of New Netherland transformed the political geography of the middle Atlantic colonies. New Amsterdam became New York, and previously Dutch-controlled New Jersey developed into a separate English province.

New Jersey was temporarily divided into East Jersey and West Jersey. These separate provinces existed for several decades before the territory developed into the unified colony and eventual state.

Pennsylvania was established in 1681 and named after William Penn. Penn was a Quaker, linking the colony's founding to the religious and political development of English America.

England temporarily consolidated its northern colonies into the Dominion of New England. The centralized arrangement did not survive, and the colonies eventually returned to separate administrations.

Carolina developed out of territory associated with Virginia before dividing into two colonies. North Carolina and South Carolina subsequently became separate provinces.

Delaware separated politically from Pennsylvania, while Georgia became the final colony in the traditional group of 13. By the 1770s, the British mainland colonies consisted of five southern colonies, four middle colonies, and four New England colonies.

France claimed an enormous North American territory extending beyond Canada into the Mississippi Valley. The French called the Mississippi Valley territory Louisiana in honor of King Louis XIV. Illinois Country formed another important component of France's North American possessions.

Four major colonial wars between Britain and France reflected larger conflicts occurring in Europe. The first three were named after the reigning British monarch, while the final conflict became known in North America as the French and Indian War.

King William's War produced relatively limited territorial changes in North America. The Salem witch trials occurred in Massachusetts during the same general period.

Queen Anne's War brought significant British territorial gains at French expense. These gains were concentrated primarily in areas that subsequently became part of Canada.

King George's War formed the third major conflict in the Anglo-French colonial sequence. The account also associates this conflict with British gains against the French, principally in Canada.

The French and Indian War fundamentally changed control of North America. Britain emerged with control over New France, while Spain acquired most of Louisiana. Britain also gained Illinois Country, ending France's direct colonial control over much of the territory that would become the United States.

Illinois Country became the subject of competing territorial arrangements after the French defeat. Britain initially designated it as an Indigenous reserve before attaching it to Quebec. Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, and Virginia also maintained claims to parts of the region.

Race-based slavery in the territory that became the United States extended from the colonial period through 1865. The account traces its history from 1619 and emphasizes that slavery persisted for decades after American independence.

Approximately 460,000 enslaved Africans were transported directly to the American colonies and states during the period discussed. The account also estimates that another 8.5 million people of African descent were born into slavery within those colonies and states. These figures distinguish the transatlantic trade from the much larger enslaved population subsequently born in America.

The American Revolution developed partly from British attempts to exercise greater control over colonies accustomed to substantial self-government. New taxation and the permanent presence of British troops increased resistance among colonists who had previously managed many local political and military affairs themselves.

Armed conflict began in Massachusetts in 1775. Local colonial militias confronted British troops stationed there, initiating the fighting that developed into the American Revolutionary War.

George Washington became commander of the Continental Army. The formation of this army gave the rebellious colonies a unified military organization for their struggle against Britain.

Delegates from the colonies issued the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The declaration established their intention to form an independent country rather than remain separate British colonies.

Congress produced the Articles of Confederation in 1777 as an initial framework for national government. The document preceded the permanent Constitution and formed part of the transition from colonial administrations to a unified American political system.

Britain formally recognized American independence in 1783. Although the colonies declared independence in 1776, their status as an independent country was not acknowledged by Britain until the Revolutionary War ended.

Congress governed the United States before George Washington became president in 1789. During this period, national leaders worked to establish a permanent constitutional system and secure the participation of the individual states.

The Constitution required acceptance by individual states, producing a sequence of state ratifications. Delaware was the first of the original 13 states to ratify, while Rhode Island was the last.

Vermont emerged as an independent republic from territory disputed by New York and New Hampshire. Rather than immediately joining either state during the Revolution, Vermont declared its independence. It eventually reached an agreement with New York and joined the United States in 1791 as the fourteenth state.

The proposed State of Franklin represented an unsuccessful early attempt to create a new state. Located in territory then associated with North Carolina, Franklin sought recognition under the Articles of Confederation but failed to achieve statehood.

Tennessee and Kentucky emerged from the western territories of older eastern states. Tennessee developed from western North Carolina, while Kentucky separated from Virginia. Their admission helped bring the United States to 16 states by 1800.

The Haudenosaunee were politically disadvantaged after supporting Britain during the Revolution. Their wartime alignment weakened their bargaining position with the victorious United States.

The 1794 Treaty of Canandaigua established a formal commitment to peace and friendship between the United States and the Haudenosaunee. The agreement rested on promises that the account says were subsequently violated in numerous instances.

The term Founding Fathers can refer broadly to the original congressional delegates and signers of the Declaration of Independence. The account highlights seven individuals as especially influential because of their contributions to American independence and the establishment of federal institutions.

Four of the seven highlighted Founding Fathers became American presidents. They were George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison.

Thomas Jefferson was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence. His writing helped establish the political justification for separation from Britain.

James Madison was the principal author of the Constitution in the account's description. His contribution is associated with establishing the enduring framework of the federal government.

Benjamin Franklin served as America's senior diplomat during the struggle for independence. His diplomatic role made him one of the most influential figures in the founding generation despite never becoming president.

John Jay became the first Chief Justice of the United States. His appointment connected the founding generation to the establishment of the federal judiciary.

Alexander Hamilton became the first Secretary of the Treasury. His position gave him a central role in creating the financial institutions of the new federal government.

Washington, D.C., was deliberately established as a federal capital outside the jurisdiction of any individual state. The new capital occupied a specially designated district between Virginia and Maryland, avoiding the selection of an existing state capital as the permanent national seat of government.

Philadelphia served as the American capital for much of the period before Washington, D.C., assumed that role. The national government also operated from other locations during its early history.

Alabama and Mississippi were created from territory previously claimed by Georgia. Their formation illustrates how extensive eastern colonial land claims were gradually divided into additional states.

Maine separated from Massachusetts and became an independent state in 1820. Its history demonstrates that even geographically disconnected parts of older states could eventually gain separate statehood.

Britain ceded Illinois Country to the United States after the Revolutionary War, but several states continued claiming the territory. Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, and Virginia eventually relinquished their competing claims.

The Northwest Territory was established in 1787 to organize land ceded by the original states. Rather than assigning the entire region to an existing state, the federal government created a territorial framework from which new states could emerge.

Five states eventually developed from the Northwest Territory. Ohio was admitted first. The remaining territory was divided into Indiana Territory, which produced Indiana and Illinois, and Michigan Territory, which produced Michigan and Wisconsin.

The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 followed a secret territorial agreement between Napoleon and Spain. Spain had acquired most of Louisiana after France's earlier colonial defeat. Napoleon recovered the territory in 1801 and sold it to the United States two years later.

The Louisiana Purchase transferred European claims over territory inhabited predominantly by Indigenous peoples. The overwhelming majority of people living there in 1803 were neither French nor Spanish. The purchase therefore expanded American territorial claims over lands already occupied by established societies.

Louisiana, Arkansas, and Missouri were among the first states created from the Louisiana Purchase. Much of the remaining territory subsequently received the designation Indian Territory.

Indian Territory progressively contracted as the United States created additional territories and states. The development of Iowa and Minnesota formed part of the process through which land formerly designated for Indigenous peoples was incorporated into expanding American settlement.

The Cherokee were among the southeastern Indigenous peoples forcibly relocated into Indian Territory. Their removal formed part of the Trail of Tears, demonstrating that American westward expansion involved the compulsory displacement of existing populations.

Spanish colonial control in North America initially extended into present-day Florida and New Mexico. These territories belonged to the broader colonial system of New Spain, whose principal population centers lay in present-day Mexico.

Texas became a Spanish colonial province in 1718. The account notes that it was initially associated with the name New Philippines before becoming known as Texas.

Spanish settlement expanded into California in 1767. The territory was historically divided into Alta California, corresponding broadly to the later American state, and Baja California, the peninsula that remains part of Mexico.

Britain acquired Florida from Spain in 1763 following the French and Indian War. British administrators divided the territory into East Florida and West Florida.

Spain subsequently recovered Florida before ceding it to the United States in 1819. The territory therefore passed between Spanish and British control before its incorporation into the expanding American republic.

Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821 and initially controlled an extensive North American territory. Its possessions included areas that subsequently became much of the southwestern United States.

Mexico lost Central America approximately two years after independence. The separation substantially reduced the territory governed by the newly independent Mexican state.

American migration into Texas contributed to a revolt against Mexican rule. By the 1830s, Texas contained a substantial population of settlers from the United States who participated in the independence movement.

Texas declared itself an independent republic in 1836. The republic eventually entered the United States as its twenty-eighth state, linking American settlement in Mexican territory to subsequent American territorial expansion.

The Mexican-American War resulted in Mexico surrendering extensive western territories. At the war's conclusion in 1848, Mexico ceded Alta California and territory north of the Gila River to the United States.

The United States achieved a continuous territorial reach from the Atlantic to the Pacific before the Mexican-American War ended. The 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain established a division of Oregon Country along the 49th parallel, giving the United States a Pacific connection two years before the Mexican territorial cessions.

Oregon Country was divided through diplomacy rather than conquest in the account's description. The agreement with Britain settled competing claims and contributed to the development of the northwestern states.

Slavery became increasingly concentrated in the American South after independence. Northern states abolished slavery during the early decades of the republic, while southern states retained the institution.

The Mason-Dixon Line became an important historical reference for the division between free and slave states. The southern boundary of Pennsylvania helped establish the geographical distinction commonly associated with the North and South. The term Dixieland is connected to this historical regional division.

Westward expansion repeatedly reopened disputes over whether slavery would be permitted in newly admitted states. The issue was not confined to the existing southern states; it directly affected the political future of newly acquired territory.

Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860 precipitated the secession of most southern slave states. Lincoln's opposition to slavery's expansion made his victory unacceptable to secessionist leaders, who established the Confederate States of America.

Slavery was the central cause of the American Civil War. The account explicitly rejects interpretations that minimize slavery's role in secession and the resulting conflict.

The Civil War became the deadliest war fought on American soil. It arose from the breakdown of the political union over slavery and the southern states' attempt to establish a separate country.

West Virginia separated from Confederate Virginia during the Civil War. Its creation allowed the region to join the Union as a separate state rather than remain within Confederate Virginia.

The Union victory prevented the permanent division of the United States. The Confederate attempt to establish an independent country failed, preserving the national union.

American expansion continued across the Great Plains while the remaining Indigenous territories were divided into smaller administrative units. The federal government progressively established territories and states in regions previously occupied by Indigenous nations.

Dakota Territory took its name from the Dakota people. The Dakota and Lakota belonged to the wider Indigenous grouping commonly called the Sioux.

The Sioux mounted sustained military resistance against American encroachment. Their resistance included important victories over American forces, most famously the battle associated with Custer's Last Stand.

Military victories did not prevent the eventual dispossession of the Sioux. American forces ultimately prevailed, and Sioux communities were confined to reservations despite their prolonged resistance.

The Navajo experienced forced displacement despite attempts to reach peaceful arrangements with American authorities. Their removal demonstrates that avoiding open warfare did not guarantee protection of Indigenous ancestral lands.

The Long Walk of the Navajo involved the compulsory relocation of Navajo communities from their traditional territory. American authorities moved them to a reservation, creating a distinct but related example of Indigenous displacement during western expansion.

The final ten states of the contiguous United States entered the Union between 1889 and 1912. Their admission completed the principal process through which the continental territories were converted into states.

Oklahoma emerged from the last major remaining portion of Indian Territory. The state continues to have a significant Indigenous presence, with the account identifying 39 distinct Indigenous nations associated with Oklahoma today.

Arizona and New Mexico were the final two states admitted from the contiguous continental territories. Their admission in 1912 completed the familiar 48-state continental arrangement.

The boundaries of the contiguous United States have remained largely unchanged since 1912. Later additions to the Union involved Alaska and Hawaii rather than the creation of further states from the contiguous mainland.

Alaska contained numerous established Indigenous populations before Russian colonization. The account emphasizes that these peoples continue to maintain substantial populations in their historical regions.

Russia was the first European power to claim Alaska. Although Russian claims preceded permanent settlement, the account identifies 1784 as the establishment of a Russian colony there.

The United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867. The transaction transferred Russian territorial claims to American control and eventually made Alaska the country's forty-ninth state.

Hawaii developed as an independent Indigenous kingdom rather than initially becoming a European colony. European awareness of the islands expanded during the late eighteenth century, but local political unification produced a Hawaiian state.

A Hawaiian ruler unified the islands in 1795 and established the Kingdom of Hawaii. The kingdom represented an independent Indigenous political system before American annexation.

American settlers played a leading role in the 1893 overthrow of the Hawaiian government. The coup undermined the independent Hawaiian kingdom and set the stage for American annexation.

The United States annexed Hawaii in 1898. The islands remained under American control before their eventual admission as the fiftieth state.

Alaska and Hawaii both achieved statehood in 1959. Alaska became the forty-ninth state, followed by Hawaii as the fiftieth, completing the current composition of the Union.

American territorial expansion did not end with the acquisition of the present 50 states. The United States continues to govern several territories outside the mainland and outside the state system.

Puerto Rico became an American territory in 1898 following the Spanish-American War. Located in the Caribbean, it remains the most populous of the American territories discussed.

Puerto Rico has remained a territory despite recurring proposals for statehood. Its continuing territorial status distinguishes it from regions that eventually entered the Union as states.

The United States also acquired control of the Philippines following the Spanish-American War. This extended American authority into Asia and marked a different form of overseas expansion from the incorporation of mainland territories.

The Philippines eventually became independent after World War II. The account identifies American support for Philippine independence as the reason it did not remain a permanent American possession.

Four other populated American territories remain outside the 50-state system. They are Guam, American Samoa, the United States Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands.

The American presidency and Congress developed through several different party systems. Today's Republican-Democratic competition was preceded by political organizations with different names, alliances, and institutional positions.

The First Party System centered on the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans. These were the principal competing political organizations during the early republic, before the emergence of the modern party arrangement.

The Second Party System centered on the Whigs and Democrats. This rivalry preceded the modern Republican-Democratic system and was an important feature of American politics before the Civil War.

The modern party system is dominated by Republicans and Democrats. The timeline identifies Republicans in red and Democrats in blue, distinguishing them from earlier parties that occupied different positions in American political history.

Control of Congress is presented separately from control of the presidency. The timeline records which party controlled the House of Representatives and which controlled the Senate, allowing readers to follow changes in legislative power alongside presidential administrations.

American territorial expansion followed several fundamentally different mechanisms. Independence from Britain established the original country; negotiated purchases added Louisiana and Alaska; treaties settled claims to Oregon and transferred Mexican territory; military conflict shaped other acquisitions; and annexation incorporated Hawaii. These processes repeatedly affected territories already inhabited by Indigenous populations.

The creation of the modern United States involved both the division of existing territories and the acquisition of new ones. Some states emerged from original British colonial claims, others from French, Spanish, or Mexican territories, and still others from federal territories established after American independence.

The conversion of territory into American states did not follow a uniform timetable. Some regions became states relatively soon after acquisition, while others remained federal territories for decades or longer. Alaska and Hawaii illustrate the distinction between acquiring territory and eventually granting it statehood.

Indigenous dispossession was a recurring consequence of American territorial growth rather than a single historical event. The Haudenosaunee experienced weakened diplomatic power and broken treaty promises; the Cherokee were forcibly relocated; the Sioux resisted militarily before confinement to reservations; and the Navajo suffered forced removal despite seeking peace. Together, these histories demonstrate several distinct ways Indigenous sovereignty and landholding were undermined during the creation of the modern United States.