What is the Oldest European Country?

- The answer to “What is the oldest European country?” depends on the definition of a country. The result changes depending on whether microstates count, whether England and Scotland are treated separately, and whether countries that disappeared and later regained independence are dated from their original foundations or their modern restorations.

- The speaker distinguishes medieval European countries from ancient civilizations. Ancient Greece and Rome existed primarily as city-states and empires rather than modern-style regional countries. The speaker argues that countries in the familiar sense emerged after the fall of Rome, when local rulers united neighboring tribes, often through shared language and culture.

- The timeline begins around 800 CE to emphasize the development of Europe as a continent of interacting political entities. The speaker acknowledges that significant history occurred earlier but characterizes much of it as Mediterranean-centered, rather than history shaped by independent regional countries across Europe.

- Six European microstates are excluded from the main comparison. Andorra, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, San Marino and Vatican City are omitted because the speaker considers them exceptions to the usual historical development of country-sized states.

- Russia is the only transcontinental country included. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Georgia, Kazakhstan and Turkey are excluded because the speaker considers their historical connections more closely associated with West Asia than Europe.

- The comparison uses the earliest emergence of a distinct self-governing political entity. The speaker does not require countries to have their present names, modern borders or uninterrupted independence. This deliberately allows historical predecessors to establish the starting dates for modern countries.

- Thirteen countries considered products of modern political development are removed from the main ranking. These are Austria, Belgium, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, North Macedonia, Slovakia and Slovenia. The speaker's criterion is that they did not exist as unified, independent states during the Middle Ages.

- The resulting comparison contains 25 entries rather than 24 because England and Scotland are counted separately. The speaker then uses a historical timeline to trace each country's political origins.

- Norway, Denmark and Sweden had separate medieval histories despite later unions and changes of control. All three were united under the Kalmar Union, while Norway subsequently spent around 300 years under Danish rule and was controlled by Sweden for much of the nineteenth century. The speaker nevertheless treats them as separate medieval kingdoms.

- Norway is dated to 872, Denmark to 936 and Sweden to 970. Norway's traditional founding is attributed to Harald Fairhair. These dates rely partly on semi-legendary historical sources, which the speaker accepts unless historical reliability becomes important for resolving a ranking tie.

- Iceland's independent Commonwealth dates to 930. Although Iceland became part of Norway in the thirteenth century, the speaker uses its earlier period of independent self-government and places Iceland ahead of Denmark in the comparison.

- Great Britain was formed by the union of England and Scotland in 1707. The modern United Kingdom therefore does not represent the beginning of either country's political history; the speaker evaluates England and Scotland independently.

- Wales is excluded because it never became a single, unified medieval kingdom under the speaker's criteria. The closest example was the Principality of Wales established by Llywelyn the Great, which was subsequently absorbed into England. The speaker makes a similar observation about Ireland, which is also excluded from the main ranking.

- England is dated to 886 and associated with Alfred the Great. England was ruled by Denmark for a period, but the speaker traces its foundation to Alfred's reign. Alfred's grandson Athelstan was the first to use the title “King of the English,” distinguishing the emergence of the kingdom from the later use of a unified English royal title.

- Scotland is dated to 843 and associated with Kenneth MacAlpin. However, the speaker acknowledges that the date is disputed. Some historians consider the beginning of Constantine II's reign in 900 a more accurate marker of Scotland's unification.

- Spain's political origins are traced to the kingdoms that preceded its modern formation. Spain emerged from the merger of Castile and Aragon in 1479, but the speaker considers Castile the dominant predecessor and therefore traces Spain's history further back rather than using 1479 as its starting date.

- The speaker selects 1065 as Spain's historical starting point. Castile itself developed through the union of Castile and León. Earlier Iberian political history included four kingdoms—Castile, León, Aragon and Navarre—and rulers of the largest kingdom sometimes used the title “Emperor of all Spain.” The speaker chooses 1065 because it represents the first period in which these four Spanish kingdoms existed together, while acknowledging that this interpretation is debatable.

- Portugal emerged in 1139 after separating from Castile and León. Its foundation therefore comes later than the historical starting date selected for Spain.

- France and Germany share roots in the Frankish political world. France's predecessor was the Kingdom of the West Franks, which developed into West Francia. East Francia corresponds to the historical predecessor of Germany and eventually became associated with the Holy Roman Empire.

- Germany's history extends well before its conventional 1871 founding date. Although Germany is often described as having been founded in 1871, the speaker argues that its medieval origins lie in East Francia and the medieval Kingdom of Germany, which formed the core of the Holy Roman Empire.

- The Frankish Empire's division in 843 provides the speaker's chosen starting date for both France and Germany. Francia had existed as a unified political entity since 481, approximately five years after the fall of Rome. The Treaty of Verdun divided the Frankish Empire into three parts, two of which survived as West Francia and East Francia. The speaker chooses 843 rather than 481 because the two successor territories then began developing distinct histories.

- The 843 date places France and Germany ahead of Scotland in the speaker's ranking. Although all three are associated with the year 843, the division of Charlemagne's empire is considered historically well established, whereas Scotland's precise unification date remains disputed. The speaker therefore gives France and Germany precedence.

- Hungary is dated to 1000. It eventually passed to the Habsburgs, whose family originated in Austria and whose rulers also held the position of Holy Roman Emperor. The speaker emphasizes that Austria and Hungary were held as separate territories rather than simply being absorbed into the imperial title. After the Holy Roman Empire dissolved, the Habsburgs continued ruling Austria and Hungary while Germany developed along a separate political path.

- Switzerland's political roots are dated to 1291. Although Switzerland developed within the broader historical context of the Holy Roman Empire, the speaker uses 1291 as the country's starting date.

- Czechia traces its medieval origins to 870, when it was known as Bohemia. Bohemia was part of the Holy Roman Empire and later entered a long personal union with Hungary, but the speaker identifies its earlier independent political roots as the relevant foundation date.

- Poland is dated to 966, but its history includes a period of fragmentation. The country later re-emerged during the fourteenth century and eventually formed a union with Lithuania. The speaker nevertheless retains 966 as Poland's founding date rather than treating its later restoration as the beginning.

- Lithuania is dated to 1253. Its emergence as a distinct political entity is included in the comparison alongside the medieval origins of Poland and Czechia.

- Russia, Belarus and Ukraine share historical roots in Kievan Rus, founded in 882. Rather than assigning all three countries the date 882, the speaker applies the same principle used for France and Germany: use the period when the predecessor political entity fragmented and distinct successor histories developed. This occurred around 1200.

- The speaker identifies different medieval political predecessors for modern Ukraine, Russia and Belarus. Galicia-Volhynia roughly corresponds to Ukraine; despite later conquest by Poland and Russia, the region developed its own language and culture. The Grand Principality of Vladimir evolved into Moscow and eventually Russia, while the principality of Polotsk followed a different trajectory and is associated with modern Belarus.

- Croatia is dated to 925 and is identified as the oldest of the South Slavic countries in the comparison. It later entered a personal union with Hungary, around the same period that Serbia emerged as an independent political entity.

- Serbia is dated to 1091. The speaker treats this as the point at which Serbia emerged as an independent entity rather than using the earlier shared historical roots of the South Slavic peoples.

- Montenegro's medieval predecessor was the independent state of Duklja, established around 1077. Although Duklja does not appear on the speaker's timeline chart, it is included verbally as a historical entity corresponding to modern Montenegro.

- Bosnia is dated to 1377, when it formally separated from Hungary. Its emergence is placed later than Croatia, Serbia and Duklja in the speaker's account of the region.

- Wallachia and Moldova developed as separate political entities during the fourteenth century. Wallachia emerged in 1330 and eventually became a core part of Romania. Moldova followed in 1359. The speaker identifies both as having separated from Hungary during the same century.

- The earliest Albanian state identified in the episode is Arbanon, established in 1190. The speaker includes it as a medieval predecessor relevant to the history of modern Albania.

- Bulgaria's founding date is 681, earlier than the 864 date shown on the speaker's timeline chart. The speaker explains that Bulgaria existed as an independent political entity from 681 and uses this earlier date for the final comparison.

- Bulgaria is the speaker's answer for the oldest European country under the chosen criteria. Its date of 681 places it ahead of France and Germany, which are tied at 843, followed by Scotland and Czechia, which the speaker places at fifth. The speaker's stated top ten also includes Norway, England, Croatia, Iceland and Denmark.

- Bulgaria's history includes long periods of foreign rule. The Byzantine and Ottoman empires controlled Bulgaria for substantial portions of its history. This creates a distinction between the earliest founding of a country and the claim that it has continuously existed as an independent state.

- France is offered as an alternative answer for the oldest continuously existing independent European country. The speaker argues that France is a stronger candidate if periods of foreign domination disqualify a country, pointing to the interval between the Holy Roman Empire and the German Empire during which Germany was not united.

- San Marino becomes the answer if microstates are included. The speaker dates San Marino's foundation to 301 CE, making it substantially older than the country-sized states included in the main comparison.

- Armenia becomes a candidate if transcontinental countries are included. The speaker gives its founding date as 331 BCE, earlier than the dates used for the European countries in the main ranking.

- Greece becomes a candidate if the question is broadened to the earliest European civilization. The speaker points to the Minoan civilization on Crete, which dates to approximately 3000 BCE. Greece is excluded from the main ranking because the speaker's criteria focus on unified, independent medieval states rather than ancient civilizations.

- The speaker's preferred answers are Bulgaria or France, depending on the definition of continuity. Bulgaria is preferred when a country's original founding counts despite subsequent periods of foreign rule; France is preferred when uninterrupted independent existence is the priority.